A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry infor- mation from a source to a destination. For example, the transmission medium for twopeople having a dinner conversation is the air. The air can also be used to convey themessage in a smoke signal or semaphore. For a written message, the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck, or an airplane.In data communications the definition of the information and the transmission medium is more specific. The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable,or fiber-optic cable. The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversionof data from another form.The use of long-distance communication using electric signals started with theinvention of the telegraph by Morse in the 19th century. Communication by telegraphwas slow and dependent on a metallic medium.Extending the range of the human voice became possible when the telephone wasinvented in 1869. Telephone communication at that time also needed a metallic medium to carry the electric signals that were the result of a conversion from the human voice. The communication was, however, unreliable due to the poor quality of the wires. The lines were often noisy and the technology was unsophisticated. Wireless communication started in 1895 when Hertz was able to send high- frequency signals. Later, Marconi devised a method to send telegraph-type messages over the Atlantic Ocean. We have come a long way. Better metallic media have been invented (twisted- pair and coaxial cables, for example). The use of optical fibers has increased the data rate incredibly. Free space (air, vacuum, and water) is used more efficiently, in part due to the technologies (such as modulation and multiplexing). computers and other telecommunication devices use signals to represent data. These signals are transmitted from one device to another in the form of electromagnetic energy, which is propagated through transmission media. Electromagnetic energy, a combination of electric and magnetic fields vibrating in relation to each other, includes power, radio waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X, gamma, and cosmic rays. Each of these constitutes a portion of the electro- magnetic spectrum. Not all portions of the spectrum are currently usable for telecommu- nications, however. The media to harness those that are usable are also limited to a few types. In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad catego- ries: guided and unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is free space.
GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together, One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the receiver. By twist!ng the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences (noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between the two, receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out. From the above discussion, it is clear that the number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable. Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided- mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The local loop--the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office---commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables. The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted- pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover. Coaxial Cable Standards Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. Each RG num- ber denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing. Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function.
Coaxial Cable Connectors
To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC), connector.The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks branch out to a connection to a computer or other device. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
Applications
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced today with fiber-optic cable. Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however, cable TV providers replaced most of the media with fiber-optic cable; hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at the network boundaries, near the consumer premises. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable. Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs Because of its high bandwidth, and consequently high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs. The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10 Mbps with a range of 185 m. The 10Base5, or Thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 (thick coaxial cable) to transmit 10 Mbps with a range of 5000 m. Thick Ethernet has specialized connectors.
Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.
Propagation Modes
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multi- mode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index Multimode Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core, In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters the angle of the beam's motion. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distor- tion of the signal as it passes through the fiber. A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distor- tion of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. As we saw above, the index of refraction is related to density. A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge. Single-Mode Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single- mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with substantially lower density (index of refraction). The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90 degree to make the propagation of beams almost horizontal. In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical, and delays are negligible. All the beams arrive at the destination "together" and can be recombined with little distortion to the signal
Fiber Sizes
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.
Cable Composition
composition of a typical fiber-optic cable. The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.
Perfortnance
The plot of attenuation versus wavelength in Figure 7.16 shows a very interesting phenomenon in fiber-optic cable. Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable. The performance is such that we need fewer (actually 10 times less) repeaters when we use fiber-optic cable.
Applications
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps. The SONET network that we discuss in Chapter 17 provides such a backbone. Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid network. Optical fiber provides the backbone structure while coaxial cable provides the connection to the user premises. This is a cost-effective con- figuration since the narrow bandwidth requirement at the user end does not justify the use of optical fiber. Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted-
pair or coaxial).
##Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and reception technology available.
##signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of other guided media. A signal can mn for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
##Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic cables.
##Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.
Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.
GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together, One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the receiver. By twist!ng the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences (noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between the two, receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out. From the above discussion, it is clear that the number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable. Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided- mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The local loop--the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office---commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables. The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted- pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover. Coaxial Cable Standards Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. Each RG num- ber denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing. Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function.
Coaxial Cable Connectors
To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC), connector.The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks branch out to a connection to a computer or other device. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
Applications
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced today with fiber-optic cable. Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however, cable TV providers replaced most of the media with fiber-optic cable; hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at the network boundaries, near the consumer premises. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable. Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs Because of its high bandwidth, and consequently high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs. The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10 Mbps with a range of 185 m. The 10Base5, or Thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 (thick coaxial cable) to transmit 10 Mbps with a range of 5000 m. Thick Ethernet has specialized connectors.
Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.
Propagation Modes
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multi- mode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index Multimode Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core, In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters the angle of the beam's motion. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distor- tion of the signal as it passes through the fiber. A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distor- tion of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. As we saw above, the index of refraction is related to density. A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge. Single-Mode Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single- mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with substantially lower density (index of refraction). The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90 degree to make the propagation of beams almost horizontal. In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical, and delays are negligible. All the beams arrive at the destination "together" and can be recombined with little distortion to the signal
Fiber Sizes
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.
Cable Composition
composition of a typical fiber-optic cable. The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.
Perfortnance
The plot of attenuation versus wavelength in Figure 7.16 shows a very interesting phenomenon in fiber-optic cable. Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable. The performance is such that we need fewer (actually 10 times less) repeaters when we use fiber-optic cable.
Applications
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps. The SONET network that we discuss in Chapter 17 provides such a backbone. Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid network. Optical fiber provides the backbone structure while coaxial cable provides the connection to the user premises. This is a cost-effective con- figuration since the narrow bandwidth requirement at the user end does not justify the use of optical fiber. Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted-
pair or coaxial).
##Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and reception technology available.
##signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of other guided media. A signal can mn for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
##Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic cables.
##Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.
Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.
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