In data communications, we need to send messages from one end system to another. If the message is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it needs to be divided into packets of fixed or variable size. The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol. In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means that there is no reserved bandwidth on the links, and there is no scheduled processing time for each packet. Resources are allocated on demand. The allocation is done on a first- come, first-served basis. When a switch receives a packet, no matter what is the source or destination, the packet must wait if there are other packets being processed. As with other systems in our daily life, this lack of reservation may create delay. For example, if we do not have a reservation at a restaurant, we might have to wait.
Routing Table
If there are no setup or teardown phases, how are the packets routed to their destinations in a datagram network? In this type of network, each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table which is based on the destination address. The routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically. The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output ports are recorded in the tables. This is different from the table of a circuit- switched network in which each entry is created when the setup phase is completed and deleted when the teardown phase is over.
Destination Address
Every packet in a datagram network carries a header that contains, among other information, the destination address of the packet. When the switch receives the packet, this destination address is examined; the routing table is consulted to find the corresponding port through which the packet should be forwarded. This address, unlike the address in a virtual-circuit-switched network, remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched network; resources are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred. If a source sends a packet and there is a delay of a few minutes before another packet can be sent, the resources can be reallocated during these minutes for other packets from other sources.
Delay
There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit network. Although there are no setup and teardown phases, each packet may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded. In addition, since not all packets in a message necessarily travel through the same switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message.
Datagram Networks in the Internet
As we will see in future chapters, the Internet has chosen the datagram approach to switching at the network layer. It uses the universal addresses defined in the network layer to route packets from the source to the destination.
VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.
1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the data transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header. However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it defines what should be the next switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried), not end-to-end jurisdiction. The reader may ask how the intermediate switches know where to send the packet if there is no final destination address carried by a packet. The answer will be clear when we discuss virtual-circuit identifiers in the next section.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit-switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the network layer. But this may change in the future.
Addressing
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and local (virtual-circuit identifier).
Global Addressing
A source or a destination needs to have a global address--an address that can be unique in the scope of the network or internationally if the network is part of an international network. However, we will see that a global address in virtual-circuit networks is used only to create a virtual-circuit identifier, as discussed next.
Virtual- Circuit Identifier
The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier (VCI). A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch scope; it is used by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it has a different VCI.
Data Transfer Phase
To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to have a table entry for this virtual circuit. The table, in its simplest form, has four columns. This means that the switch holds four pieces of information for each virtual circuit that is already set up. We show later how the switches make their table entries, but for the moment we assume that each switch has a table with entries for all active virtual circuits. The data transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frames to the destination. The procedure at the switch is the same for each frame of a message. The process creates a virtual circuit, not a real circuit, between the source and destination.
Setup Phase
In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit. For example, suppose source A needs to create a virtual circuit to B. Two steps are required: the setup request and the acknowledgment.
Teardown Phase
In this phase, source A, after sending all frames to B, sends a special frame called a teardown request. Destination B responds with a teardown confirmation frame. All switches delete the corresponding entry from their tables.
Efficiency
As we said before, resource reservation in a virtual-circuit network can be made during the setup or can be on demand during the data transfer phase. In the first case, the delay for each packet is the same; in the second case, each packet may encounter different delays. There is one big advantage in a virtual-circuit network even if resource allocation is on demand. The source can check the availability of the resources, without actually reserving it. Consider a family that wants to dine at a restaurant. Although the restaurant may not accept reservations (allocation of the tables is on demand), the family can call and find out the waiting time. This can save the family time and effort.
Delay in Virtual-Circuit Networks
In a virtual-circuit network, there is a one-time delay for setup and a one-time delay for teardown. If resources are allocated during the setup phase, there is no wait time for individual packets.
In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation;
resources are allocated on demand.
In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others. Even if a packet is part of a multipacket transmission, the network treats it as though it existed alone. Packets in this approach are referred to as datagrams. Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer. We briefly discuss datagram networks here as a comparison with circuit-switched and virtual-circuit- switched networks. The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless networks. The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch) does not keep information about the connection state. There are no setup or teardown phases. Each packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of its source or destination.resources are allocated on demand.
Routing Table
If there are no setup or teardown phases, how are the packets routed to their destinations in a datagram network? In this type of network, each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table which is based on the destination address. The routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically. The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output ports are recorded in the tables. This is different from the table of a circuit- switched network in which each entry is created when the setup phase is completed and deleted when the teardown phase is over.
Destination Address
Every packet in a datagram network carries a header that contains, among other information, the destination address of the packet. When the switch receives the packet, this destination address is examined; the routing table is consulted to find the corresponding port through which the packet should be forwarded. This address, unlike the address in a virtual-circuit-switched network, remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.
The destination address in the header of a acket in a datagram network
remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.
remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched network; resources are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred. If a source sends a packet and there is a delay of a few minutes before another packet can be sent, the resources can be reallocated during these minutes for other packets from other sources.
Delay
There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit network. Although there are no setup and teardown phases, each packet may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded. In addition, since not all packets in a message necessarily travel through the same switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message.
Datagram Networks in the Internet
As we will see in future chapters, the Internet has chosen the datagram approach to switching at the network layer. It uses the universal addresses defined in the network layer to route packets from the source to the destination.
Switching in the Lnternet is done by using the datagram
approach to packet switching at the network layer.
approach to packet switching at the network layer.
VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.
1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the data transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header. However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it defines what should be the next switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried), not end-to-end jurisdiction. The reader may ask how the intermediate switches know where to send the packet if there is no final destination address carried by a packet. The answer will be clear when we discuss virtual-circuit identifiers in the next section.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit-switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the network layer. But this may change in the future.
Addressing
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and local (virtual-circuit identifier).
Global Addressing
A source or a destination needs to have a global address--an address that can be unique in the scope of the network or internationally if the network is part of an international network. However, we will see that a global address in virtual-circuit networks is used only to create a virtual-circuit identifier, as discussed next.
Virtual- Circuit Identifier
The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier (VCI). A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch scope; it is used by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it has a different VCI.
Data Transfer Phase
To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to have a table entry for this virtual circuit. The table, in its simplest form, has four columns. This means that the switch holds four pieces of information for each virtual circuit that is already set up. We show later how the switches make their table entries, but for the moment we assume that each switch has a table with entries for all active virtual circuits. The data transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frames to the destination. The procedure at the switch is the same for each frame of a message. The process creates a virtual circuit, not a real circuit, between the source and destination.
Setup Phase
In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit. For example, suppose source A needs to create a virtual circuit to B. Two steps are required: the setup request and the acknowledgment.
Teardown Phase
In this phase, source A, after sending all frames to B, sends a special frame called a teardown request. Destination B responds with a teardown confirmation frame. All switches delete the corresponding entry from their tables.
Efficiency
As we said before, resource reservation in a virtual-circuit network can be made during the setup or can be on demand during the data transfer phase. In the first case, the delay for each packet is the same; in the second case, each packet may encounter different delays. There is one big advantage in a virtual-circuit network even if resource allocation is on demand. The source can check the availability of the resources, without actually reserving it. Consider a family that wants to dine at a restaurant. Although the restaurant may not accept reservations (allocation of the tables is on demand), the family can call and find out the waiting time. This can save the family time and effort.
In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the same source and destination travel the same path; but the packets may arrive at the destination
with different delays if resource allocation is on demand.
with different delays if resource allocation is on demand.
Delay in Virtual-Circuit Networks
In a virtual-circuit network, there is a one-time delay for setup and a one-time delay for teardown. If resources are allocated during the setup phase, there is no wait time for individual packets.
Switching at the data link layer in a switched WAN is normally
implemented by using virtual-circuit techniques.
implemented by using virtual-circuit techniques.
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