In real life, we have links with limited bandwidths. The wise use of these bandwidths has been, and will be, one of the main challenges of electronic communications. How-ever, he meaning of wise may depend on the application. Sometimes we need to combine several low-bandwidth channels to make use of one channel with a larger bandwidth. Sometimes we need to expand the bandwidth of a channel to achieve goals such as privacy and antijamming. In this chapter, we explore these two broad categories of bandwidth utilization: multiplexing and spreading. In multiplexing, our goal is effi-ciency; we combine several channels into one. In spreading, our goals are privacy and antijamming; we expand the bandwidth of a channel to insert redundancy, which is necessary to achieve these goals.
Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve specific goals. Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; privacy and antijamming can be achieved by spreading.
MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the band- width needs of the devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data and telecommunications use increases, so does traffic. We can accommodate this increase by continuing to add individual links each time a new channel is needed; or we can install higher-bandwidth links and use each to carry multiple signals. Today's technology includes high-bandwidth media such as optical fiber and terrestrial and satellite microwaves. Each has a bandwidth far in excess of that needed for the average transmission signal. If the bandwidth of a link is greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices connected to it, the bandwidth is wasted. An efficient system maximizes the utilization of all resources; bandwidth is one of the most precious resources we have in data communication.
There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals
There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modu- late different carder frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. Carder frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel. Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth--guard bands--to prevent signals from overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.
Demultiplexing Process
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines.
The Analog Carrier System
To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone companies have tradition- ally multiplexed signals from lower-bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines. In this way, many switched or leased lines can be combined into fewer but bigger channels. For analog lines, FDM is used. In this analog hierarchy, 12 voice channels are multiplexed onto a higher-bandwidth line to create a group. A group has 48 kHz of bandwidth and supports 12 voice channels. At the next level, up to five groups can be multiplexed to create a composite signal called a supergroup. A supergroup has a bandwidth of 240 kHz and supports up to 60 voice channels. Supergroups can be made up of either five groups or 60 independent voice channels. At the next level, 10 supergroups are multiplexed to create a master group. A master group must have 2.40 MHz of bandwidth, but the need for guard bands between the supergroups increases the necessary bandwidth to 2.52 MHz. Master groups support up to 600 voice channels. Finally, six master groups can be combined into a jumbo group. A jumbo group must have 15.12 MHz (6 x 2.52 MHz) but is augmented to 16.984 MHz to allow for guard bands between the master groups.
Other Applications of FDM
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable. Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one. WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demulti- plexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies are very high.
WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very simple. We want to combine multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the demultiplexer. The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism. Recall from basic physics that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency. Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light, each containing a narrow band of fre- quencies, into one output beam of a wider band of frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process. One application of WDM is the SONET network in which multiple optical fiber lines are multiplexed and demultiplexed. A new method, called dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a very large number of channels by spacing channels very close to one another. It achieves even greater efficiency.
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link. Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.We also need to remember that TDM is, in principle, a digital multiplexing technique. Digital data from different sources are combined into one timeshared link. However, this does not mean that the sources cannot produce analog data; analog data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and then multiplexed by using TDM.
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
We can divide TDM into two different schemes: synchronous and statistical. We first discuss synchronous TDM and then show how statistical TDM diRers. In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not sending data. Time Slots and Frames In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where each input occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data. Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot. How- ever, the duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an input time slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the number of connections. In other words, a unit in the output connection has a shorter duration; it travels faster. In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected into a frame (we will see the reason for this shortly). If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is allocated for each unit, one for each input line. If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is T/n and the dura- tion of each frame is T (unless a frame carries some other information, as we will see shortly). The data rate of the output link must be n times the data rate of a connection to guarantee the flow of data. the data rate of the link is 3 times the data rate of a connection; likewise, the duration of a unit on a connection is 3 times that of the time slot (duration of a unit on the link). In the figure we represent the data prior to multiplexing as 3 times the size of the data after multiplexing. This is just to convey the idea that each unit is 3 times longer in duration before multiplexing than after.
In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.
Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots, with one slot dedicated to each sending device. In a system with n input lines, each frame has n slots, with each slot allocated to carrying data from a specific input line.
Interleaving
TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and the other on the alemultiplexing side. The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite directions. On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving. On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path.
Data Rate Management
One problem with TDM is how tO handle a disparity in the input data rates. In all our discussion so far, we assumed that the data rates of all input lines were the same. However, if data rates are not the same, three strategies, or a combination of them, can be used. We call these three strategies multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and pulse stuffing.
Multilevel Multiplexing Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input line is a multiple of others. we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three inputs of 40 kbps. The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide a data rate equal to the last three. A second level of multi- plexed together to provide a data rate equal to the last three. A second level of multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps.
Multiple-Slot Allocation Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a single input line. For example, we might have an input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of another input. the input line with a 50-kbps data rate can be given two slots in the output. We insert a serial-to-parallel converter in the line to make two inputs out of one.
Pulse Stuffing Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of each other. Therefore, neither of the above two techniques can be applied. One solution is to make the highest input data rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates. This will increase their rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit stuffing.
Frame Synchronizing
The implementation of TDM is not as simple as that of FDM. Synchronization between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is a major issue. If the. multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit belonging to one channel may be received by the wrong channel. For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each frame. These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the time slots accurately. In most cases, this synchronization information consists of 1 bit per frame, alternating between 0 and 1.
Digital Signal Service
Telephone companies implement TDM through a hierarchy of digital signals, called digital signal (DS) service or digital hierarchy.
More Synchronous TDM Applications will be posted after that post.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modu- late different carder frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. Carder frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel. Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth--guard bands--to prevent signals from overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.
Demultiplexing Process
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines.
The Analog Carrier System
To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone companies have tradition- ally multiplexed signals from lower-bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines. In this way, many switched or leased lines can be combined into fewer but bigger channels. For analog lines, FDM is used. In this analog hierarchy, 12 voice channels are multiplexed onto a higher-bandwidth line to create a group. A group has 48 kHz of bandwidth and supports 12 voice channels. At the next level, up to five groups can be multiplexed to create a composite signal called a supergroup. A supergroup has a bandwidth of 240 kHz and supports up to 60 voice channels. Supergroups can be made up of either five groups or 60 independent voice channels. At the next level, 10 supergroups are multiplexed to create a master group. A master group must have 2.40 MHz of bandwidth, but the need for guard bands between the supergroups increases the necessary bandwidth to 2.52 MHz. Master groups support up to 600 voice channels. Finally, six master groups can be combined into a jumbo group. A jumbo group must have 15.12 MHz (6 x 2.52 MHz) but is augmented to 16.984 MHz to allow for guard bands between the master groups.
Other Applications of FDM
A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting. Radio uses the air as the transmission medium. A special band from 530 to 1700 kHz is assigned to AM radio. All radio stations need to share this band. As discussed in Chapter 5, each AM sta- tion needs 10 kHz of bandwidth. Each station uses a different carrier frequency, which means it is shifting its signal and multiplexing. The signal that goes to the air is a combi- nation of signals. A receiver raceives all these signals, but filters (by tuning) only the one which is desired. Without multiplexing, only one AM station could broadcast to the com- mon link, the air. However, we need to know that there is physical multiplexer or demulti- plexer here. As we will see in Chapter 12 multiplexing is done at the data link layer. The situation is similar in FM broadcasting. However, FM has a wider band of 88 to 108 MHz because each station needs a bandwidth of 200 kHz. Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting. Each TV channel has its own bandwidth of 6 MHz. The first generation of cellular telephones (still in operation) also uses FDM. Each user is assigned two 30-kHz channels, one for sending voice and the other for receiving. The voice signal, which has a bandwidth of 3 kHz (from 300 to 3300 Hz), is modulated by using FM. Remember that an FM signal has a bandwidth 10 times that of the modulating signal, which means each channel has 30 kHz (10 x 3) of bandwidth. Therefore, each user is given, by the base station, a 60-kHz bandwidth in a range available at the time of the call.
lnplementation
FDM can be implemented very easily. In many cases, such as radio and television broadcasting, there is no need for a physical multiplexer or demultiplexer. As long as the stations agree to send their broadcasts to the air using different carrier frequencies, multiplexing is achieved. In other cases, such as the cellular telephone system, a base station needs to assign a carrier frequency to the telephone user. There is not enough bandwidth in a cell to permanently assign a bandwidth range to every telephone user. When a user hangs up, her or his bandwidth is assigned to another caller.
lnplementation
FDM can be implemented very easily. In many cases, such as radio and television broadcasting, there is no need for a physical multiplexer or demultiplexer. As long as the stations agree to send their broadcasts to the air using different carrier frequencies, multiplexing is achieved. In other cases, such as the cellular telephone system, a base station needs to assign a carrier frequency to the telephone user. There is not enough bandwidth in a cell to permanently assign a bandwidth range to every telephone user. When a user hangs up, her or his bandwidth is assigned to another caller.
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable. Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one. WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demulti- plexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies are very high.
WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very simple. We want to combine multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the demultiplexer. The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism. Recall from basic physics that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency. Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light, each containing a narrow band of fre- quencies, into one output beam of a wider band of frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process. One application of WDM is the SONET network in which multiple optical fiber lines are multiplexed and demultiplexed. A new method, called dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a very large number of channels by spacing channels very close to one another. It achieves even greater efficiency.
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link. Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.We also need to remember that TDM is, in principle, a digital multiplexing technique. Digital data from different sources are combined into one timeshared link. However, this does not mean that the sources cannot produce analog data; analog data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and then multiplexed by using TDM.
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
We can divide TDM into two different schemes: synchronous and statistical. We first discuss synchronous TDM and then show how statistical TDM diRers. In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not sending data. Time Slots and Frames In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where each input occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data. Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot. How- ever, the duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an input time slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the number of connections. In other words, a unit in the output connection has a shorter duration; it travels faster. In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected into a frame (we will see the reason for this shortly). If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is allocated for each unit, one for each input line. If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is T/n and the dura- tion of each frame is T (unless a frame carries some other information, as we will see shortly). The data rate of the output link must be n times the data rate of a connection to guarantee the flow of data. the data rate of the link is 3 times the data rate of a connection; likewise, the duration of a unit on a connection is 3 times that of the time slot (duration of a unit on the link). In the figure we represent the data prior to multiplexing as 3 times the size of the data after multiplexing. This is just to convey the idea that each unit is 3 times longer in duration before multiplexing than after.
In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.
Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots, with one slot dedicated to each sending device. In a system with n input lines, each frame has n slots, with each slot allocated to carrying data from a specific input line.
Interleaving
TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and the other on the alemultiplexing side. The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite directions. On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving. On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path.
Data Rate Management
One problem with TDM is how tO handle a disparity in the input data rates. In all our discussion so far, we assumed that the data rates of all input lines were the same. However, if data rates are not the same, three strategies, or a combination of them, can be used. We call these three strategies multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and pulse stuffing.
Multilevel Multiplexing Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input line is a multiple of others. we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three inputs of 40 kbps. The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide a data rate equal to the last three. A second level of multi- plexed together to provide a data rate equal to the last three. A second level of multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps.
Multiple-Slot Allocation Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a single input line. For example, we might have an input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of another input. the input line with a 50-kbps data rate can be given two slots in the output. We insert a serial-to-parallel converter in the line to make two inputs out of one.
Pulse Stuffing Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of each other. Therefore, neither of the above two techniques can be applied. One solution is to make the highest input data rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates. This will increase their rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit stuffing.
Frame Synchronizing
The implementation of TDM is not as simple as that of FDM. Synchronization between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is a major issue. If the. multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit belonging to one channel may be received by the wrong channel. For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each frame. These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the time slots accurately. In most cases, this synchronization information consists of 1 bit per frame, alternating between 0 and 1.
Digital Signal Service
Telephone companies implement TDM through a hierarchy of digital signals, called digital signal (DS) service or digital hierarchy.
More Synchronous TDM Applications will be posted after that post.
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