Encapsulation

Encapsulation

The previous discussion reveals that an SPE needs to be encapsulated in an STS-1 frame. Encapsulation may create two problems that are handled elegantly by SONET using pointers (H1 to H3). We discuss the use of these bytes in this section.

Offsetting

SONET allows one SPE to span two frames, part of the SPE is in the first frame and part is in the second. This may happen when one SPE that is to be encapsulated is not aligned time-wise with the passing synchronized frames. SPE bytes are divided between the two frames. The first set of bytes is encapsulated in the first frame; the second set is encapsulated in the second frame. The figure also shows the path overhead, which is aligned with the section/line overhead of any frame. The question is, How does the SONET multiplexer know where the SPE starts or ends in the frame? The solution is the use of pointers H1 and H2 to define the beginning of the SPE; the end can be found because each SPE has a fixed number of bytes. SONET allows the offsetting of an SPE with respect to an STS-1 frame. To find the beginning of each SPE in a frame, we need two pointers H1 and H2 in the line overhead. Note that these pointers are located in the line overhead because the encapsulation occurs at a multiplexer.

the beginning of the SPEs. Note that we need 2 bytes to define the position of a byte in a frame; a frame has 810 bytes, which cannot be defined using 1 byte.


STS MULTIPLEXING

In SONET, frames of lower rate can be synchronously time-division multiplexed into a higher-rate frame. For example, three STS-1 signals (channels) can be combined into one STS-3 signal (channel), four STS-3s can be multiplexed into one STS-12.

Multiplexing is synchronous TDM, and all clocks in the network are locked to a master clock to achieve synchronization.

We need to mention that multiplexing can also take place at the higher data rates. For example, four STS-3 signals can be multiplexed into an STS-12 signal. However, the STS-3 signals need to first be demultiplexed into 12 STS-1 signals, and then these twelve signals need to be multiplexed into an STS-12 signal. The reason for this extra work will be clear after our discussion on byte interleaving.

Byte Interleaving

Synchronous TDM multiplexing in SONET is achieved by using byte interleaving. For example, when three STS-1 signals are multliplexed into one STS-3 signal, each set of 3 bytes in the STS-3 signal is associated with 1 byte from each STS- 1 signal.

Concatenated Signal

In normal operation of the SONET, an STS-n signal is made of n multiplexed STS-1 signals. Sometimes, we have a signal with a data rate higher than what an STS- 1 can carry. In this case, SONET allows us to create an STS-n signal which is not considered as n STS-1 signals; it is one STS-n signal (channel) that cannot be demultiplexed into n STS- 1 signals. To specify that the signal cannot be demultiplexed, the suffix c (for concatenated) is added to the name of the signal. For example, STS-3c is a signal that cannot be demultiplexed into three STS-1 signals. However, we need to know that the whole payload in an STS-3c signal is one SPE, which means that we have only one column (9 bytes) of path overhead. The used data in this case occupy 260 columns,

Add/Drop Multiplexer

Multiplexing of several STS-1 signals into an STS-n signal is done at the STS multiplexer (at the path layer). Demultiplexing of an STS-n signal into STS- 1 components is done at the STS demultiplexer. In between, however, SONET uses add/drop multiplexers that can replace a signal with another one. We need to know that this is not demultiplexing/multiplexing in the conventional sense. An add/drop multiplexer operates at the line layer. An add/drop multiplexer does not create section, line, or path overhead. It almost acts as a switch; it removes one STS-1 signal and adds another one. The type of signal at the input and output of an add/drop multiplexer is the same (both STS-3 or both STS-12, for example). The add/drop multiplexer (ADM) only removes the corresponding bytes and replaces them with the new bytes
(including the bytes in the section and line overhead).