Frame Relay Layers

Frame Relay Layers

Frame Relay has only physical and data link layers.


Physical Layer

No specific protocol is defined for the physical layer in Frame Relay. Instead, it is left to the implementer to use whatever is available. Frame Relay supports any of the protocols recognized by ANSI.

Data Link Layer

At the data link layer, Frame Relay uses a simple protocol that does not support flow or error control. It only has an error detection mechanism.

##Address (DLCI) field. The first 6 bits of the first byte makes up the first part of the DLCI. The second part of the DLCI uses the first 4 bits of the second byte. These bits are part of the 10-bit data link connection identifier defined by the standard. We will discuss extended addressing at the end of this section.

##Command/response (C/R). The command/response (C/R) bit is provided to allow upper layers to identify a frame as either a command or a response. It is not used by the Frame Relay protocol.

##Extended address (EA). The extended address (EA) bit indicates whether the current byte is the final byte of the address. An EA of 0 means that another address byte is to follow (extended addressing is discussed later). An EA of 1 means that the current byte is the final one.

##Forward explicit congestion notification (FECN). The forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) bit can be set by any switch to indicate that traffic is congested. This bit informs the destination that congestion has occurred. In this way, the destination knows that it should expect delay or a loss of packets.

##Backward explicit congestion notification (BECN). The backward explicit congestion notification (BECN) bit is set (in frames that travel in the other direction) to indicate a congestion problem in the network. This bit informs the sender that con- gestion has occurred. In this way, the source knows it needs to slow down to prevent the loss of packets.

##Discard eligibility (DE). The discard eligibility (DE) bit indicates the priority level of the frame. In emergency situations, switches may have to discard frames to relieve bottlenecks and keep the network from collapsing due to overload. When set (DE 1), this bit tells the network to discard this frame if there is congestion. This bit can be set either by the sender of the frames (user) or by any switch in the network.



Extended Address

To increase the range of DLCIs, the Frame Relay address has been extended from the original 2-byte address to 3- or 4-byte addresses. Figure 18.4 shows the different addresses. Note that the EA field defines the number of bytes; it is 1 in the last byte of the addres, and it is 0 in the other bytes. Note that in the 3- and 4-byte formats, the bit before the last bit is set to 0.


FRADs

To handle frames arriving from other protocols, Frame Relay uses a device called a Frame Relay assembler/disassembler (FRAD). A FRAD assembles and disassembles frames coming from other protocols to allow them to be carried by Frame Relay frames. A FRAD can be implemented as a separate device or as part of a switch.

VOFR

Frame Relay networks offer an option called Voice Over Frame Relay (VOFR) that sends voice through the network. Voice is digitized using PCM and then compressed. The result is sent as data frames over the network. This feature allows the inexpensive sending of voice over long distances. However, note that the quality of voice is not as good as voice over a circuit-switched network such as the telephone network. Also, the varying delay mentioned earlier sometimes corrupts real-time voice.

LMI

Frame Relay was originally designed to provide PVC connections. There was not, therefore, a provision for controlling or managing interfaces. Local Management Information (LMI) is a protocol added recently to the Frame Relay protocol to provide more management features. In particular, LMI can provide -----


1. keep-alive mechanism to check if data are flowing.

2. multicast mechanism to allow a local end system to send frames to more than one remote end system.

3. mechanism to allow an end system to check the status of a switch (e.g., to see if the switch is congested).

Virtual-Circuit Networks

Virtual-Circuit Networks.' Frame Relay and ATM


In previous post , we discussed switching techniques. We said that there are three types of switching: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching. We also mentioned that packet switching can use two approaches: the virtual-circuit approach and the datagram approach.

we show how the virtual-circuit approach can be used in wide-area networks. Two common WAN technologies use virtual-circuit switching. Frame Relay is a relatively high-speed protocol that can provide some services not available in other WAN technologies such as DSL, cable TV, and T lines. ATM, as a high-speed protocol, can be the superhighway of communication when it deploys physical layer carriers such as SONET.

We first discuss Frame Relay. We then discuss ATM in greater detail. Finally, we show how ATM technology, which was originally designed as a WAN technology, can also be used in LAN technology, ATM LANs.


FRAME RELAY

Frame Relay is a virtual-circuit wide-area network that was designed in response to demands for a new type of WAN in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

1. Prior to Frame Relay, some organizations were using a virtual-circuit switching network called X.25 that performed switching at the network layer. For example, the Intemet, which needs wide-area networks to carry its packets from one place to another, used X.25. And X.25 is still being used by the Internet, but it is being replaced by other WANs. However, X.25 has several drawbacks:

a. X.25 has a low 64-kbps data rate. By the 1990s, there was a need for higher data-rate WANs.

b. X.25 has extensive flow and error control at both the data link layer and the network layer. This was so because X.25 was designed in the 1970s, when the available transmission media were more prone to errors. Flow and error control at both layers create a large overhead and slow down transmissions. X.25 requires acknowledgments for both data link layer frames and network layer packets that are sent between nodes and between source and destination.

c. Originally X.25 was designed for private use, not for the Internet. X.25 has its own network layer. This means that the user's data are encapsulated in the network layer packets of X.25. The Internet, however, has its own network layer, which means if the Internet wants to use X.25, the Internet must deliver its network layer packet, called a datagram, to X.25 for encapsulation in the X.25 packet. This doubles the overhead.


2. Disappointed with X.25, some organizations started their own private WAN by leasing T- 1 or T-3 lines from public service providers. This approach also has some drawbacks.

a. If an organization has n branches spread over an area, it needs n(n - 1)/2 T- 1 or T-3 lines. The organization pays for all these lines although it may use the lines only 10 percent of the time. This can be very costly:

b. The services provided by T-1 and T-3 lines assume that the user has fixed-rate data all the time. For example, a T-1 line is designed for a user who wants to use the line at a consistent 1.544 Mbps. This type of service is not suitable for the many users today that need to send bursty data. For example, a user may want to send data at 6 Mbps for 2 s, 0 Mbps (nothing) for 7 s, and 3.44 Mbps for 1 s for a total of 15.44 Mbits during a period of 10 s. Although the average
data rate is still 1.544 Mbps, the T-1 line cannot accept this type of demand because it is designed for fixed-rate data, not bursty data. Bursty data require what is called bandwidth on demand. The user needs different bandwidth allocations at different times. In response to the above drawbacks, Frame Relay was designed. Frame Relay is a wide area network with the following features:

1. Frame Relay operates at a higher speed (1.544 Mbps and recently 44.376 Mbps). This means that it can easily be used instead of a mesh ofT-1 or T-3 lines.

2. Frame Relay operates in just the physical and data link layers. This means it can easily be used as a backbone network to provide services to protocols that already have a network layer protocol, such as the Internet.

3. Frame Relay allows bursty data.

4. Frame Relay allows a frame size of 9000 bytes, which can accommodate all local area network frame sizes.

5. Frame Relay is less expensive than other traditional WANs.

6. Frame Relay has error detection at the data link layer only. There is no flow control or error control. There is not even a retransmission policy if a frame is damaged; it is silently dropped. Frame Relay was designed in this way to provide fast transmission capability for more reliable media and for those protocols that have flow and error control at the higher layers.

Architecture

Frame Relay provides permanent virtual circuits and switched virtual circuits. The routers are
used,to connect LANs and WANs in the Internet. In the figure, the Frame Relay WAN is used as one link in the global Internet.
Virtual Circuits

Frame Relay is a virtual circuit network. A virtual circuit in Frame Relay is identified by a number called a data link connection identifier (DLCI).

Permanent Versus Switched Virtual Circuits

A source and a destination may choose to have a permanent virtual circuit (PVC). In this case, the connection setup is simple. The corresponding table entry is recorded for all switches by the administrator (remotely and electronically, of course). An outgoing DLCI is given to the source, and an incoming DLCI is given to the destination. PVC connections have two drawbacks. First, they are costly because two parties pay for the connection all the time even when it is not in use. Second, a connection is created from one source to one single destination. If a source needs connections with several destinations, it needs a PVC for each connection. An alternate approach is the switched virtual circuit (SVC). The SVC creates a temporary, short connection that exists only when data are being transferred between source and destination. An SVC requires establishing and terminating phases.

Switches

Each switch in a Frame Relay network has a table to route frames. The table matches an incoming port-DLCI combination with an outgoing port-DLCI combination. The only difference is that VCIs are replaced by DLCIs.

SONET NETWORKS

SONET NETWORKS

Using SONET equipment, we can create a SONET network that can be used as a high-speed backbone carrying loads from other networks such as ATM (Chapter 18) or IP (Chapter 20). We can roughly divide SOlNET networks into three categories: linear, ting, and mesh networks.

Linear Networks

A linear SONET network can be point-to-point or multipoint. Point-to-Point Network. A point-to-point network is normally made of an STS multiplexer, an STS demultiplexer, and zero or more regenerators with no add/drop multiplexers, as shown in Figure 17.18. The signal flow can be unidirectional or bidirectional,

Multipoint Network

A multipoint network uses ADMs to allow the communications between several terminals. An ADM removes the signal belonging to the terminal connected to it and adds the signal transmitted from another terminal. Each terminal can send data to one or more downstream terminals. which each terminal can send data only to the downstream terminals, but the a multipoint network can be bidirectional, too.

Automatic Protection Switching

To create protection against failure in linear networks, SONET defines automatic protection switching (APS). APS in linear networks is defined at the line layer, which means the protection is between two ADMs or a pair of STS multiplexer/multiplexers. The idea is to provide redundancy; a redundant line (fiber) can be used in case of failure in the main one. The main line is referred to as the work line and the redundant line as the protection line. Three schemes are common for protection in linear channels:
one-plus-one, one-to-one, and one-to-many.

One-Plus-One APS In this scheme, there are normally two lines: one working line and one protection line. Both lines are active all the time. The sending multiplexer


sends the same data on both lines; the receiver multiplexer monitors the line and chooses the one with the better quality. If one of the lines fails, it loses its signal, and, of course, the other line is selected at the receiver. Although, the failure recovery for this scheme is instantaneous, the scheme is inefficient because two times the bandwidth is required. Note that one-plus-one switching is done at the path layer.

One-to-One APS In this scheme, which looks like the one-plus-one scheme, there is also one working line and one protection line. However, the data are normally sent on the working line until it fails. At this time, the receiver, using the reverse channel, informs the sender to use the protection line instead. Obviously, the failure recovery is slower than that of the one-plus-scheme, but this scheme is more efficient because the protection line can be used for data transfer when it is not used to replace the working line. Note that the one-to-one switching is done at the line layer.

One-to-Many APS This scheme is similar to the one-to-one scheme except that there is only one protection line for many working lines. When a failure occurs in one of the working lines, the protection line takes control until the failed line is repaired. It is not as secure as the one-to-one scheme because if more than one working line fails at the same time, the protection line can replace only one of them. Note that one-to-many APS is done at the line layer.


Ring Networks

ADMs make it possible to have SONET ring networks. SONET rings can be used in either a unidirectional or a bidirectional configuration. In each case, we can add extra rings to make the network self-healing, capable of self-recovery from line failure. Unidirectional Path Switching Ring

A unidirectional path switching ring (UPSR) is a unidirectional network with two rings: one ring used as the working ring and the other as the protection ring. The idea is similar to the one-plus-one APS scheme we discussed in a linear network. The same signal flows through both rings, one clockwise and the other counterclockwise. It is called UPSR because monitoring is done at the path layer. A node receives two copies of the electrical signals at the path layer, compares them, and chooses the one with the better quality. If part of a ring between two ADMs fails, the other ring still can guarantee the continuation of data flow. UPSR, like the one-plus-one scheme, has fast failure recovery, but it is not efficient because we need to have two rings that do the job of one. Half of the bandwidth is wasted.

Although we have chosen one sender and three receivers in the figure, there can be many other configurations. The sender uses a two-way connection to send data to both rings simultaneously; the receiver uses selecting switches to select the ring with better signal quality. We have used one STS multiplexer and three STS alemultiplexers to emphasize that nodes operate on the path layer.

Bidirectional Line Switching Ring

Another alternative in a SONET ring network is bidirectional line switching ring (BLSR). In this case, communication is bidirectional, which means that we need two rings for working lines. We also need two rings for protection lines. This means BLSR uses four rings. The operation, however, is similar to the one-to-one APS scheme. If a working ring in one direction between two nodes fails, the receiving node can use the reverse ring to inform the upstream node in the failed direction to use the protection ring. The network can recover in several different failure situations that we do not discuss here. Note that the discovery of a failure in BLSR is at the line layer, not the path layer. The ADMs find the failure and inform the adjacent nodes to use the protection rings.

Combination of Rings

SONET networks today use a combination of interconnected rings to create services in a wide area. For example, a SONET network may have a regional ring, several local rings, and many site rings to give services to a wide area. These rings can be UPSR, BLSR, or a combination of both.
Mesh Networks

One problem with ring networks is the lack of scalability. When the traffic in a ring increases, we need to upgrade not only the lines, but also the ADMs. In this situation, a mesh network with switches probably give better performance. A switch in a network mesh is called a cross-connect. A cross-connect, like other switches we have seen, has input and output ports. In an input port, the switch takes an OC-n signal, changes it to an STS-n signal, demultiplexes it into the corresponding STS-1 signals, and sends each STS-1 signal to the appropriate output port. An output port takes STS-1 signals coming from different input ports, multiplexes them into an STS-n signal, and makes an OC-n signal for transmission.


VIRTUAL TRIBUTARIES

SONET is designed to carry broadband payloads. Current digital hierarchy data rates (DS-1 to DS~3), however, are lower than STS-1. To make SONET backward-compatible with the current hierarchy, its frame design includes a system of virtual tributaries (VTs) . A virtual tributary is a partial payload that can be inserted into an STS-1 and combined with other partial payloads to fill out the frame. Instead of using all 86 payload columns of an STS-1 frame for data from one source, we can sub- divide the SPE and call each component a VT.

Types of VTs

Four types of VTs have been defined to accommodate existing digital hierarchies Notice that the number of columns allowed for each type of VT can be determined by doubling the type identification number

(VT1.5 gets three columns, VT2 gets four columns, etc.).
VT1.5 accommodates the U.S. DS-1 service (1.544 Mbps).
VT2 accommodates the European CEPT-1 service (2.048 Mbps).
VT3 accommodates the DS-1C service (fractional DS-l, 3.152 Mbps).
VT6 accommodates the DS-2 service (6.312 Mbps).


When two or more tributaries are inserted into a single STS-1 frame, they are interleaved column by column. SONET provides mechanisms for identifying each VT and separating them without demultiplexing the entire stream.

Encapsulation

Encapsulation

The previous discussion reveals that an SPE needs to be encapsulated in an STS-1 frame. Encapsulation may create two problems that are handled elegantly by SONET using pointers (H1 to H3). We discuss the use of these bytes in this section.

Offsetting

SONET allows one SPE to span two frames, part of the SPE is in the first frame and part is in the second. This may happen when one SPE that is to be encapsulated is not aligned time-wise with the passing synchronized frames. SPE bytes are divided between the two frames. The first set of bytes is encapsulated in the first frame; the second set is encapsulated in the second frame. The figure also shows the path overhead, which is aligned with the section/line overhead of any frame. The question is, How does the SONET multiplexer know where the SPE starts or ends in the frame? The solution is the use of pointers H1 and H2 to define the beginning of the SPE; the end can be found because each SPE has a fixed number of bytes. SONET allows the offsetting of an SPE with respect to an STS-1 frame. To find the beginning of each SPE in a frame, we need two pointers H1 and H2 in the line overhead. Note that these pointers are located in the line overhead because the encapsulation occurs at a multiplexer.

the beginning of the SPEs. Note that we need 2 bytes to define the position of a byte in a frame; a frame has 810 bytes, which cannot be defined using 1 byte.


STS MULTIPLEXING

In SONET, frames of lower rate can be synchronously time-division multiplexed into a higher-rate frame. For example, three STS-1 signals (channels) can be combined into one STS-3 signal (channel), four STS-3s can be multiplexed into one STS-12.

Multiplexing is synchronous TDM, and all clocks in the network are locked to a master clock to achieve synchronization.

We need to mention that multiplexing can also take place at the higher data rates. For example, four STS-3 signals can be multiplexed into an STS-12 signal. However, the STS-3 signals need to first be demultiplexed into 12 STS-1 signals, and then these twelve signals need to be multiplexed into an STS-12 signal. The reason for this extra work will be clear after our discussion on byte interleaving.

Byte Interleaving

Synchronous TDM multiplexing in SONET is achieved by using byte interleaving. For example, when three STS-1 signals are multliplexed into one STS-3 signal, each set of 3 bytes in the STS-3 signal is associated with 1 byte from each STS- 1 signal.

Concatenated Signal

In normal operation of the SONET, an STS-n signal is made of n multiplexed STS-1 signals. Sometimes, we have a signal with a data rate higher than what an STS- 1 can carry. In this case, SONET allows us to create an STS-n signal which is not considered as n STS-1 signals; it is one STS-n signal (channel) that cannot be demultiplexed into n STS- 1 signals. To specify that the signal cannot be demultiplexed, the suffix c (for concatenated) is added to the name of the signal. For example, STS-3c is a signal that cannot be demultiplexed into three STS-1 signals. However, we need to know that the whole payload in an STS-3c signal is one SPE, which means that we have only one column (9 bytes) of path overhead. The used data in this case occupy 260 columns,

Add/Drop Multiplexer

Multiplexing of several STS-1 signals into an STS-n signal is done at the STS multiplexer (at the path layer). Demultiplexing of an STS-n signal into STS- 1 components is done at the STS demultiplexer. In between, however, SONET uses add/drop multiplexers that can replace a signal with another one. We need to know that this is not demultiplexing/multiplexing in the conventional sense. An add/drop multiplexer operates at the line layer. An add/drop multiplexer does not create section, line, or path overhead. It almost acts as a switch; it removes one STS-1 signal and adds another one. The type of signal at the input and output of an add/drop multiplexer is the same (both STS-3 or both STS-12, for example). The add/drop multiplexer (ADM) only removes the corresponding bytes and replaces them with the new bytes
(including the bytes in the section and line overhead).

STS-l frame: line overhead

STS-l frame: line overhead

Line parity byte (B2). Byte B2 is for bit interleaved parity. It is for error checking of the frame over a line (between two multiplexers). In an STS-n frame, B2 is calculated for all bytes in the previous STS-1 frame and inserted at the B2 byte for that frame. In other words, in a STS-3 frame, there are three B2 bytes, each calculated for one STS-1 frame. Contrast this byte with B 1 in the section overhead.

Data communication channel bytes (D4 to D12). The line overhead D bytes (D4 to D12) in consecutive frames form a 576-kbps channel that provides the same service as the D l-D3 bytes (OA&M), but at the line rather than the section level (between multiplexers).

Order wire byte (E2). The E2 bytes in consecutive frames form a 64-kbps channel that provides the same functions as the E1 order wire byte, but at the line level.

Pointer bytes (HI, H2, and H3). Bytes H1, H2, and H3 are pointers. The first two bytes are used to show the offset of the SPE in the frame; the third is used for justification. We show the use of these bytes later.

Automatic protection switching bytes (K1 and K2). The K1 and K2 bytes in consecutive frames form a 128-kbps channel used for automatic detection of problems in line-terminating equipment.

Growth bytes (Z1 and Z2). The Z1 and Z2 bytes are reserved for future use.

Synchronous Payload Envelope

The synchronous payload envelope (SPE) contains the user data and the overhead related to the user data (path overhead). One SPE does not necessarily fit it into one STS- 1 frame; it may be split between two frames, as we will see shortly. This means that the path overhead, the leftmost column of an SPE, does not necessarily align with the section or line overhead. The path overhead must be added first to the user data to create an SPE, and then an SPE can be inserted into one or two frames. Path overhead consists of 9 bytes.

Path parity byte (B3). Byte B3 is for bit interleaved parity, like bytes B1 and B2, but calculated over SPE bits. It is actually calculated over the previous SPE in the stream.

Path signal label byte (C2). Byte C2 is the path identification byte. It is used to identify different protocols used at higher levels (such as IP or ATM) whose data are being carried in the SPE.

Path user channel byte (F2). The F2 bytes in consecutive frames, like the F1 bytes, form a 64-kbps channel that is reserved for user needs, but at the path level.

Path status byte (G1). Byte G1 is sent by the receiver to communicate its status to the sender. It is sent on the reverse channel when the communication is duplex. We will see its use in the linear or ring networks later in the chapten

Multiframe indicator (H4). Byte H4 is the multiframe indicator. It indicates payloads that cannot fit into a single frame. For example, virtual tributaries can be combined to form a frame that is larger than an SPE frame and need to be divided into different frames. Virtual tributaries are discussed in the next section. Path trace byte (J1). The J1 bytes in consecutive frames form a 64-kbps channel used for tracking the path. The J1 byte sends a continuous 64-byte string to verify the connection. The choice of the string is left to the application program. The receiver compares each pattern with the previous one to ensure nothing is wrong with the communication at the path layer.

Growth bytes (Z3, Z4, and Z5). Bytes Z3, Z4, and Z5 are reserved for future use.

SONET LAYERS

SONET LAYERS

The SONET standard includes four functional layers: the photonic, the section, the line, and the path layer. They correspond to both the physical and the data link layers . The headers added to the frame at the various layers are discussed later in this chapter.

Path Layer

The path layer is responsible for the movement of a signal from its optical source to its optical destination. At the optical source, the signal is changed from an electronic form into an optical form, multiplexed with other signals, and encapsulated in a frame. At the optical destination, the received frame is demultiplexed, and the individual optical signals are changed back into their electronic forms. Path layer overhead is added at this layer. STS multiplexers provide path layer functions.


Line Layer

The line layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a physical line. Line layer overhead is added to the frame at this layer. STS multiplexers and add/drop multiplexers provide line layer functions.

Section Layer

The section layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a physical section. It handles framing, scrambling, and error control. Section layer overhead is added to the frame at this layer.

Photonic Layer

The photonic layer corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model. It includes physical specifications for the optical fiber channel, the sensitivity of the receiver, multiplexing functions, and so on. SONET uses NRZ encoding with the presence of light representing 1 and the absence of light representing 0.

Device-Layer Relationships

an STS multiplexer is a four-layer device. An add/drop multiplexer is a three-layer device. A regenerator is a two-layer device.

SONET FRAMES

Each synchronous transfer signal STS-n is composed of 8000 frames. Each frame is a two-dimensional matrix of bytes with 9 rows by 90 x n columns. For example, STS- 1 frame is 9 rows by 90 columns (810 bytes), and an STS-3 is 9 rows by 270 columns (2430 bytes).

Frame, Byte, and Bit Transmission

One of the interesting points about SONET is that each STS-n signal is transmitted at a fixed rate of 8000 frames per second. This is the rate at which voice is digitized . For each frame the bytes are transmitted from the left to the right, top to the bottom. For each byte, the bits are transmitted from the most significant to the least significant (left to right).


If we sample a voice signal and use 8 bits (1 byte) for each sample, we can say that each byte in a SONET frame can carry information from a digitized voice channel. In other words, an STS-1 signal can carry 774 voice channels simultaneously (810 minus required bytes for overhead).

STS-1 Frame Format

SONET frame is a matrix of 9 rows of 90 bytes (octets) each, for a total of 810 bytes. The first three columns of the frame are used for section and line overhead. The upper three rows of the first three columns are used for section overhead (SOH). The lower six are line overhead (LOH). The rest of the frame is called the synchronous payload envelope (SPE). It contains user data and path overhead (POH) needed at the user data level. We will discuss the format of the SPE shortly.

Section Overhead

Alignment bytes (A1 and A2). Bytes A1 and A2 are used for framing and synchronization and are called alignment bytes. These bytes alert a receiver that a frame is arriving and give the receiver a predetermined bit pattern on which to syn- chronize. The bit patterns for these two bytes in hexadecimal are 0xF628. The bytes serve as a flag.

Section parity byte (B1). Byte B1 is for bit interleaved parity (BIP-8). Its value is calculated over all bytes of the previous frame. In other words, the ith bit of this byte is the parity bit calculated over all ith bits of the previous STS-n frame. The value of this byte is filled only for the first STS-1 in an STS-n frame. In other words, although an STS-n frame has n B 1 bytes, as we will see later, only the first byte has this value; the rest are filled with Os.

Identification byte (C1). Byte C1 carries the identity of the STS-1 frame. This byte is necessary when multiple STS-ls are multiplexed to create a higher-rate STS (STS-3, STS-9, STS-12, etc.). Information in this byte allows the various signals to be recog- nized easily upon demultiplexing. For example, in an STS-3 signal, the value of the C 1 byte is 1 for the first STS- 1; it is 2 for the second; and it is 3 for the third.

Management bytes (D1, D2, and D3). Bytes D1, D2, and D3 together form a 192-kbps channel (3 x 8000 x 8) called the data communication channel. This chan- nel is required for operation, administration, and maintenance (OA&M) signaling.

Order wire byte (El). Byte E1 is the order wire byte. Order wire bytes in consecutive frames form a channel of 64 kbps (8000 frames per second times 8 bits per

frame). This channel is used for communication between regenerators, or between terminals and regenerators.

User's byte (F1). The F1 bytes in consecutive frames form a 64-kbps channel that is reserved for user needs at the section level.

SONET/SDH

SONET/SDH

SONET, that is used as a transport network to carry loads from other WANs. We first discuss SONET as a protocol, and we then show how SONET networks can be constructed from the standards defined in the protocol. The high bandwidths of fiber-optic cable are suitable for today's high-data-rate technologies (such as video conferencing) and for carrying large numbers of lower-rate technologies at the same time. For this reason, the importance of fiber optics grows in conjunction with the development of technologies requiring high data rates or wide bandwidths for transmission. With their prominence came a need for standardization. The United States (ANSI) and Europe (ITU-T) have responded by defining standards that, though independent, are fundamentally similar and ultimately compatible. The ANSI standard is called the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). The ITU-T standard is called the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).

ARCHITECTURE

Let us first introduce the architecture of a SONET system: signals, devices, and connections. Signals SONET defines a hierarchy of electrical signaling levels called synchronous transport signals (STSs). Each STS level (STS-1 to STS-192) supports a certain data rate, specified in megabits per second . The corresponding optical signals are called optical carriers (OCs). SDH specifies a similar system called a synchronous transport module (STM). STM is intended to be compatible with existing European hierarchies, such as E lines, and with STS levels. To this end, the lowest STM level, STM-1, is defined as 155.520 Mbps, which is exactly equal to STS-3.


SONET Devices

SONET transmission relies on three basic devices: STS multiplexers/demultiplexers, regenerators, add/drop multiplexers and terminals.

STS Multtiplexer/Detnultiplexer

STS multiplexers/demultiplexers mark the beginning points and endpoints of a SONET link. They provide the interface between an electrical tributary network and the optical network. An STS multiplexer multiplexes signals from multiple electrical sources and creates the corresponding OC signal. An STS demultiplexer demultiplexes an optical OC signal into corresponding electric signals.

Regenerator

Regenerators extend the length of the links. A regenerator is a repeater that takes a received optical signal (OC-n), demodulates it into the corresponding electric signal (STS-n), regenerates the electric signal, and finally modulates the electric signal into its correspondent OC-n signal. A SONET regenerator replaces some of the existing overhead information (header information) with new information.


Add/drop Multiplexer

Add/drop multiplexers allow insertion and extraction of signals. An add/drop multiplexer (ADM) can add STSs coming from different sources into a given path or can remove a desired signal from a path and redirect it without demultiplexing the entire signal. Instead of relying on timing and bit positions, add/drop multiplexers use header information such as addresses and pointers (described later in this section) to identify individual streams.

In the simple configuration , a number of incoming electronic signals are fed into an STS multiplexer, where they are combined into a single optical signal. The optical signal is transmitted to a regenerator, where it is recreated without the noise it has picked up in transit. The regenerated signals from a number of sources are then fed into an add/drop multiplexer. The add/drop multiplexer reorganizes these signals, if necessary, and sends them out as directed by information in the data frames. These remultiplexed signals are sent to another regenerator and from there to the receiving STS demultiplexer, where they are returned to a format usable by the receiving links.

Terminals

A terminal is a device that uses the services of a SONET network. For example, in the Internet, a terminal can be a router that needs to send packets to another router at the other side of a SONET network.
Connections

The devices defined in the previous section are connected using sections, lines, and paths.

Sections

A section is the optical link connecting two neighbor devices: multiplexer to multiplexer, multiplexer to regenerator, or regenerator to regenerator.

Lines

A line is the portion of the network between two multiplexers: STS multiplexer to add/ drop multiplexer, two add/drop multiplexers, or two STS multiplexers.

Paths

A path is the end-to-end portion of the network between two STS multiplexers. In a simple SONET of two STS multiplexers linked directly to each other, the section, line, and path are the same.

GSM

GSM

The Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is a European standard that was developed to provide a common second-generation technology for all Europe. The aim was to replace a number of incompatible first-generation technologies. Bands GSM uses two bands for duplex communication. Each band is 25 MHz in width, shifted toward 900 MHz, Each band is divided into 124 channels of 200 kHz separated by guard bands.

Each voice channel is digitized and compressed to a 13-kbps digital signal. Each slot carries 156.25 bits. Eight slots share a frame (TDMA). Twenty-six frames also share a multiframe (TDMA). We can calculate the bit rate of each channel as follows:

Channel datarat = (i/120 ms) x 26 X 8 X 156.25 = 270.8 kbps


Each 270.8-kbps digital channel modulates a carrier using GMSK (a form of FSK used mainly in European systems); the result is a 200-kHz analog signal. Finally 124 analog channels of 200 kHz are combined using FDMA. The result is a 25-MHz band. Figure 16.9 shows the user data and overhead in a multiframe. The reader may have noticed the large amount of overhead in TDMA. The user data are only 65 bits per slot. The system adds extra bits for error correction to make it 114 bits per slot. To this, control bits are added to bring it up to 156.25 bits per slot. Eight slots are encapsulated in a frame. Twenty-four traffic frames and two additional control frames make a multiframe. A multiframe has a duration of 120 ms. However, the architecture does define superframes and hyperframes that do not add any overhead; we will not discuss them here.

Reuse Factor Because of the complex error correction mechanism, GSM allows a reuse factor as low as 3.

IS-95

One of the dominant second-generation standards in North America is Interim Standard 95 (IS-95). It is based on CDMA and DSSS. Bands and Channels IS-95 uses two bands for duplex communication. The bands can be the traditional ISM 800-MHz band or the ISM 1900-MHz band. Each band is divided into 20 channels of 1.228 MHz separated by guard bands. Each service provider is allotted 10 channels. IS-95 can be used in parallel with AMPS. Each IS-95 channel is equivalent to 41 AMPS channels (41 x 30 kHz = 1.23 MHz). Synchronization All base channels need to be synchronized to use CDMA. To provide synchronization, bases use the services of GPS (Global Positioning System), a satellite system that we discuss in the next section. Forward Transmission IS-95 has two different transmission techniques: one for use in the forward (base to mobile) direction and another for use in the reverse (mobile to base) direction. In the forward direction, communications between the base and all mobiles are synchronized; the base sends synchronized data to all mobiles. Each voice channel is digitized, producing data at a basic rate of 9.6 kbps. After adding error-correcting and repeating bits, and interleaving, the result is a signal of 19.2 ksps (kilosignals per second). This output is now scrambled using a 19.2-ksps signal. The scrambling signal is produced from a long code generator that uses the electronic serial number (ESN) of the mobile station and generates 242 pseudorandom chips, each chip having 42 bits. Note that the chips are generated pseudorandomly, not randomly, because the pattern repeats itself. The output of the long code generator is fed to a decimator, which chooses 1 bit out of 64 bits. The output of the decimator is used for scrambling. The scrambling is used to create privacy; the ESN is unique for each station.

The result of the scrambler is combined using CDMA. For each traffic channel, one Walsh 64 x 64 row chip is selected. The result is a signal of 1.228 Mcps (megachips per second).

19.2 ksps x 64 cps = 1.228 Mcps

The signal is fed into a QPSK modulator to produce a signal of 1.228 MHz. The resulting bandwidth is shifted appropriately, using FDMA. An analog channel creates64 digital channels, of which 55 channels are traffic channels (carrying digitized voice). Nine channels are used for control and synchronization:

##Channel 0 is a pilot channel. This channel sends a continuous stream of 1 s to mobile stations. The stream provides bit synchronization, serves as a phase reference for demodulation, and allows the mobile station to compare the signal strength of neighboring bases for handoff decisions.

##Channel 32 gives information about the system to the mobile station.

##Channels 1 to 7 are used for paging, to send messages to one or more mobile stations.

## Channels 8 to 31 and 33 to 63 are traffic channels carrying digitized voice from the base station to the corresponding mobile station.


Reverse Transmission The use of CDMA in the forward direction is possible because the pilot channel sends a continuous sequence of ls to synchronize transmission. The synchronization is not used in the reverse direction because we need an entity to do that, which is not feasible. Instead of CDMA, the reverse channels use DSSS (direct sequence spread spectrum), which we discussed in Chapter 8. Figure 16.11 shows a simplified diagram for reverse transmission.

Each voice channel is digitized, producing data at a rate of 9.6 kbps. However, after adding error-correcting and repeating bits, plus interleaving, the result is a signal of 28.8 ksps. The output is now passed through a 6/64 symbol modulaton The symbols are divided into six-symbol chunks, and each chunk is interpreted as a binary number (from 0 to 63). The binary number is used as the index to a 64 x 64 Walsh matrix for selection of a row of chips. Note that this procedure is not CDMA; each bit is not multiplied by the chips in a row. Each six-symbol chunk is replaced by a 64-chip code. This is done to provide a kind of orthogonality; it differentiates the streams of chips from the different mobile stations. The result creates a signal of 307.2 kbps or(28.8/6) x 64.Spreading is the next step; each chip is spread into 4. Again the ESN of the mobilestation creates a long code of 42 bits at a rate of 1.228 Mbps, which is 4 times 307.2. After spreading, each signal is modulated using QPSK, which is slightly different from the one used in the forward direction; we do not go into details here. Note that there is no multiple-access mechanism here; all reverse channels send their analog signal into the air, but the correct chips will be received by the base station due to spreading.

Although we can create 242 - 1 digital channels in the reverse direction (because of the long code generator), normally 94 channels are used; 62 are traffic channels, and 32 are channels used to gain access to the base station.

Two Data Rate Sets IS-95 defines two data rate sets, with four different rates in each set. The first set defines 9600, 4800, 2400, and 1200 bps. If, for example, the selected rate is 1200 bps, each bit is repeated 8 times to provide a rate of 9600 bps. The second set defines 14,400, 7200, 3600, and 1800 bps. This is possible by reducing the number of bits used for error correction. The bit rates in a set are related to the activity of the channel. If the channel is silent, only 1200 bits can be transferred, which improves the spreading by repeating each bit 8 times. Frequency-Reuse Factor In an IS-95 system, the frequency-reuse factor is normally 1 because the interference from neighboring cells cannot affect CDMA or DSSS transmission.

Wireless WAN

Wireless WANs: Cellular
and Satellite Networks
Telephone

Wireless technology is also used in cellular telephony and satellite networks. We discuss the former in this chapter as well as examples of channelization access methods . We also briefly discuss satellite networks, a technology that eventually will be linked to cellular telephony to access the Internet directly.

CELLULAR TELEPHONY

Cellular telephony is designed to provide communications between two moving units, called mobile stations (MSs), or between one mobile unit and one stationary unit, often called a land unit. A service provider must be able to locate and track a caller, assign a channel to the call, and transfer the channel from base station to base station as the caller moves out of range. To make this tracking possible, each cellular service area is divided into small regions called cells. Each cell contains an antenna and is controlled by a solar or AC powered network station, called the base station (BS). Each base station, in turn, is controlled by a switching office, called a mobile switching center (MSC). The MSC coordinates communication between all the base stations and the telephone central office. It is a computerized center that is responsible for connecting calls, recording call information, and billing.Cell size is not fixed and can be increased or decreased depending on the population of the area. The typical radius of a cell is 1 to 12 mi. High-density areas require more, geographically smaller cells to meet traffic demands than do low-density areas. Once determined, cell size is optimized to prevent the interference of adjacent cell signals. The transmission power of each cell is kept low to prevent its signal from interfering with those of other cells.

Frequency-Reuse Principle

In general, neighboring cells cannot use the same set of frequencies for communication because it may create interference for the users located near the cell boundaries. However, the set of frequencies available is limited, and frequencies need to be reused. A frequency reuse pattern is a configuration of N cells, N being the reuse factor, in which each cell uses a unique set of frequencies. When the pattern is repeated, the frequencies can be reused. There are several different patterns.

Transmitting

To place a call from a mobile station, the caller enters a code of 7 or 10 digits (a phone number) and presses the send button. The mobile station then scans the band, seeking a setup channel with a strong signal, and sends the data (phone number) to the closest base station using that channel. The base station relays the data to the MSC. The MSC sends the data on to the telephone central office. If the called party is available, a connection is made and the result is relayed back to the MSC. At this point, the MSC assigns an unused voice channel to the call, and a connection is established. The mobile station automatically adjusts its tuning to the new channel, and communication can begin.

Receiving

When a mobile phone is called, the telephone central office sends the number to the MSC. The MSC searches for the location of the mobile station by sending query signals to each cell in a process called paging. Once the mobile station is found, the MSC transmits a ringing signal and, when the mobile station answers, assigns a voice channel to the call, allowing voice communication to begin.

Handoff

It may happen that, during a conversation, the mobile station moves from one cell to another. When it does, the signal may become weak. To solve this problem, the MSC monitors the level of the signal every few seconds. If the strength of the signal diminishes, the MSC seeks a new cell that can better accommodate the communication. The MSC then changes the channel carrying the call (hands the signal off from the old channel to a new one).

Hard Handoff Early systems used a hard handoff. In a hard handoff, a mobile station only communicates with one base station. When the MS moves from one cell to another, communication must first be broken with the previous base station before communication can be established with the new one. This nay create a rough transition.

Soft Handoff New systems use a soft handoff. In this case, a mobile station can communicate with two base stations at the same time. This means that, during handoff, a mobile station may continue with the new base station before breaking off from the old one.

Roaming

One feature of cellular telephony is called roaming. Roaming means, in principle, that a user can have access to communication or can be reached where there is coverage. A service provider usually has limited coverage. Neighboring service providers can provide extended coverage through a roaming contract. The situation is similar to snail mail between countries. The charge for delivery of a letter between two countries can be divided upon agreement by the two countries.

First Generation

Cellular teleph.ony is now in its second generation with the third on the horizon. The first generation was designed for voice communication using analog signals. We discuss one first-generation mobile system used in North America, AMPS.

AMPS

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is one of the leading analog cellular systems in North America. It uses FDMA to separate channels in a link. Bands AMPS operates in the ISM 800-MHz band. The system uses two separate analog channels, one for forward (base station to mobile station) communication and one for reverse (mobile station to base station) communication. The band between 824 and 849 MHz carries reverse communication; the band between 869 and 894 MHz carries forward communication Each band is divided into 832 channels. However, two providers can share an area, which means 416 channels in each cell for each provider. Out of these 416, 21 channels are used for control, which leaves 395 channels. AMPS has a frequency reuse factor of 7; this means only one-seventh of these 395 traffic channels are actually available in a cell. Transmission AMPS uses FM and FSK for modulation. Figure 16.4 shows the trans- mission in the reverse direction. Voice channels are modulated using FM, and control channels use FSK to create 30-kHz analog signals. AMPS uses FDMA to divide each 25-MHz band into 30-kHz channels.

Second Generation

To provide higher-quality (less noise-prone) mobile voice communications, the second generation of the cellular phone network was developed. While the first generation was designed for analog voice communication, the second generation was mainly designed for digitized voice. Three major systems evolved in the second generation,

D-AMPS

The product of the evolution of the analog AMPS into a digital system is digital AMPS (D-AMPS). D-AMPS was designed to be backward-compatible with AMPS. This means that in a cell, one telephone can use AMPS and another D-AMPS. D-AMPS was first defined by IS-54 (Interim Standard 54) and later revised by IS-136. Band D-AMPS uses the same bands and channels as AMPS. Transmission Each voice channel is digitized using a very complex PCM and compression technique. A voice channel is digitized to 7.95 kbps. Three 7.95-kbps digital voice channels are combined using TDMA. The result is 48.6 kbps of digital data; much of this is overhead. As Figure 16.6 shows, the system sends 25 frames per second, with 1944 bits per frame. Each frame lasts 40 ms (1/25) and is divided into six slots shared by three digital channels; each channel is allotted two slots. Each slot holds 324 bits. However, only 159 bits comes from the digitized voice; 64 bits are for control and 101 bits are for error correction. In other words, each channel drops 159 bits of data into each of the two channels assigned to it. The system adds 64 control bits and 101 error-correcting bits. The resulting 48.6 kbps of digital data modulates a carrier using QPSK; the result is a 30-kHz analog signal. Finally, the 30-kHz analog signals share a 25-MHz band (FDMA). D-AMPS has a frequency reuse factor of 7.

BLUETOOTH

BLUETOOTH

Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, coffee makers, and so on. A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a network called a piconet. A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the gadgets has this capability. A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, can not be large. If there are many gadgets that try to connect, there is chaos. Bluetooth technology has several applications. Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or keyboard can communicate with the computer through this technology. Monitoring devices can communicate with sensor devices in a small health care center. Home security devices can use this technology to connect different sensors to the main security controller. Conference attendees can synchronize their laptop computers at a conference. Bluetooth was originally started as a project by the Ericsson Company. It is named for Harald Blaatand the king of Denmark (940-981) who united Denmark and Norway.

Blaatand translates to Bluetooth in English.

Today, Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the
IEEE 802.15 standard. The standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN)
operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.

Architecture

Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconet and scatternet.

Piconets

A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net. A piconet can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the primary; ? the rest are called secondaries. All the secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the primary.Note that a piconet can have only one primary station. The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many.

Although a piconet can have a maximum of seven secondaries, an additional eight secondaries can be in the parked state. A secondary in a parked state is synchronize with the primary, but cannot take part in communication until it is moved from the parked state. Because only eight stations can be active in a piconet, activating a station from the parked state means that an active station must go to the parked state.

Scatternet

Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet. A secondary station intone piconet can be the primary in another piconet. This station can receive messages from the primary in the first piconet (as a secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries in the second piconet. A station can be a member of two piconets.

Bluetooth Devices

A Bluetooth device has a built-in short-range radio transmitter. The current data rate is 1 Mbps with a 2.4-GHz bandwidth. This means that there is a possibility of interference between the IEEE 802.1 lb wireless LANs and Bluetooth LANs.

Radio Layer

The radio layer is roughly equivalent to the physical layer of the Internet model. Bluetooth devices are low-power and have a range of 10 m.

Band

Bluetooth uses a 2.4-GHz ISM band divided into 79 channels of 1 MHz each.

FHSS

Bluetooth uses the frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) method in the physical layer to avoid interference from other devices or other networks. Bluetooth hops 1600 times per second, which means that each device changes its modulation frequency 1600 times per second. A device uses a frequency for only 625 gs (1/1600 s) before it hops to another frequency; the dwell time is 625 gs.

Network Allocation Vector

Network Allocation Vector How do other stations defer sending their data if one station acquires access? In other words, how is the collision avoidance aspect of this protocol accomplished ? The key is a feature called NAV. When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy the channel. The stations that are affected by this transmission create a timer called a network allocation vector (NAV) that shows how much time must pass before these stations are allowed to check the channel for idleness. Each time a station accesses the system and sends an RTS frame, other stations start their NAV. In other words, each station, before sensing the physical medium to see if it is idle, first checks its NAV to see if it has expired.

Collision During Handshaking What happens if there is collision during the time when RTS or CTS control frames are in transition, often called the handshaking period? Two or more stations may try to send RTS frames at the same time. These control frames may collide. However, because there is no mechanism for collision detection, the sender assumes there has been a collision if it has not received a CTS frame from the receiver. The back-off strategy is employed, and the sender tries again.

Point Coordination Function (PCF)

The point coordination function (PCF) is an optional access method that can be implemented in an infrastructure network (not in an ad hoc network). It is implemented on top of the DCF and is used mostly for time-sensitive transmission. PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling access method. The AP performs polling for stations that are capable of being polled. The stations are polled one after another, sending any data they have to the AP. To give priority to PCF over DCF, another set of interframe spaces has been defined: PIFS and SIFS. The SIFS is the same as that in DCF, but the PIFS (PCF IFS) is shorter than the DIFS. This means that if, at the same time, a station wants to use only DCF and an AP wants to use PCF, the AP has priority. Due to the priority of PCF over DCF, stations that only use DCF may not gain access to the medium. To prevent this, a repetition interval has been designed to cover both contention-free (PCF) and contention-based (DCF) traffic. The repetition interval, which is repeated continuously, starts with a special control frame, called a beacon frame. When the stations hear the beacon frame, they start their NAV for the duration of the contention-free period of the repetition interval. During the repetition interval, the PC (point controller) can send a poll frame,
receive data, send an ACK, receive an ACK, or do any combination of these (802.11 uses piggybacking). At the end of the contention-free period, the PC sends a CF end (contention-free end) frame to allow the contention-based stations to use the medium.


Fragnentation

The wireless environment is very noisy; a corrupt frame has to be retransmitted. The protocol, therefore, recommends fragmentation--the division of a large frame into smaller ones. It is more efficient to resend a small frame than a large one.

Wireless, Wireless LANs, LAN Arcitecture,IEEE 802.11

What is Wireless LAN, Wireless LAN overview.

The wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless local area network that communicate two or more computers or devices using spread-spectrum or OFDM modulation technology based to enable Links between devices in a limited area or local area. That helps users to move in mobility around within a broad coverage area and still be connected to the network.

Easy Installation system make the WLAN very popular for the Home users, and For its mobility features It is best for the Laptop users. Public businesses Like shops, coffe shops, malls have begun to offer wireless access to their customers; some are even provided as a free service. Large wireless network projects are being put up in many major cities: New York City, Salt lake city in INDIA for instance, has begun a pilot program to cover all five boroughs of the city with wireless Internet access.

Source : wikipedia

Wireless LANs

Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies. The demand for connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere. Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, and in many public areas. In this chapter, we concentrate on two promising wireless technologies for LANs: IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs, sometimes called wireless Ethernet, and Bluetooth, a technology for small wireless LANs. Although both protocols need several layers to operate, we concentrate mostly on the physical and data link layers.

IEEE 802.11

IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11, which covers the physical and data link layers.

Architecture

The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the extended service set (ESS). Basic Service Set IEEE 802.1 ] defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a wireless LAN. A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base station, known as the access point (AP).

The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. It is called an ad hoc architecture. In this architecture, stations can form a network without the need of an AP; they can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS. A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an infrastructure network.

Extended Service Set

An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is usually a wired LAN. The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs. IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet. Note that the extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary. The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN. When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can communicate without the use of an AP. However, communication between two stations in two different BSSs usually occurs via two APs. The idea is similar to communication in a cellular network if we consider each BSS to be a cell and each AP to be a base station. Note that a mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time.

Station Types
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in a wireless LAN: no-transition, BSS-transition, and ESS-transition mobility. A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary (not moving) or moving only inside a BSS. A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one BSS to another, but the movement is confined inside one ESS. A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to another. However, IEEE 802.11 does not guarantee that communication is continuous during the move.

MAC Sublayer

IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers: the distributed coordination function (DCF) and point coordination function (PCF).

Benifits of Wireless LANs -

Today The use and the popularity of Wireless Lan is Increasing very fast, Why Everyone is using such a System Let us see -

Convenience : For its Wireless facility Every one can access this network from anywhere or any convenient location or Home and office. For the Laptop Style computers This is best and relevant.

Mobility :Mobility features is the best features of WLANs, Any one can use this network in any where like Coffee shops, Shopping Mall, User can use it outside of their normal work place. This WLANs are cost effective also.

CDMA

Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code-division multiple access (CDMA) was conceived several decades ago. Recent advances in electronic technology have finally made its implementation possible. CDMA differs from FDMA because only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the link. It differs from TDMA because all stations can send data simultaneously; there is no timesharing.

Analogy

Let us first give an analogy. CDMA simply means communication with different codes. For example, in a large room with many people, two people can talk in English if nobody else understands English. Another two people can talk in Chinese if they are the only ones who understand Chinese, and so on. In other words, the common channel, the space of the room in this case, can easily allow communication between several couples, but in different languages (codes).

Idea

Let us assume we have four stations 1, 2, 3, and 4 connected to the same channel. The data from station 1 are d 1, from station 2 are d 2, and so on. The code assigned to the first station is cl, to the second is c2, and so on. We assume that the assigned codes have two properties.

1. If we multiply each code by another, we get 0.
2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (the number of stations).

With these two properties in mind, let us see how the above four stations can send data using the same common channel,

data that go on the channel are the sum of all these terms, as shown in the box. Any station that wants to receive data from one of the other three multiplies the data on the channel by the code of the sender. For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking to each other. Station 2 wants to hear what station 1 is saying. It multiplies the data on the channel by c 1, the code of station 1.

Because (c 1 ?? Cl) is 4, but (c 2 ?? Cl), (c. Cl), and (c 4 - c 1) are all Os, station 2 divides
the result by 4 to get the data from station 1.
data = (d 1 - c t + d 2 ?? c 2 +d 3 - c 3 + d 4- c4) ?? c I
=d l.c 1.c l+d 2.c 2.c l+d 3-c 3.c l+d 4-c4.c l=4Xd

Chips

CDMA is based on coding theory. Each station is assigned a code, which is a sequence of numbers called chips.

CHANNELIZATION

CHANNELIZATION

Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations. In this section, we discuss three channelization protocols: FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send its data. In other words, each band is reserved for a specific station, and it belongs to the station all the time. Each station also uses a bandpass filter to confine the transmitter frequencies. To prevent station interferences, the allocated bands are separated from one another by smallguard bands.

FDMA specifies a predetermined frequency band for the entire period of communication. This means that stream data (a continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be used with FDMA. We will see in Chapter 16 how this feature can be used in cellular telephone systems.

We need to emphasize that although FDMA and FDM conceptually seem similar,there are differences between them. FDM, is a physical layertechnique that combines the loads from low-bandwidth channels and transmits them by using a high-bandwidth channel. The channels that are combined are low-pass. The multiplexer modulates the signals, combines them, and creates a bandpass signal. The bandwidth of each channel is shifted by the multiplexer. FDMA, on the other hand, is an access method in the data link layer. The data link layer in each station tells its physical layer to make a bandpass signal from the data passed to it. The signal must be created in the allocated band. There is no physical multiplexer at the physical layer. The signals created at each station are automatically bandpass-filtered. They are mixed when they are sent to the common channel.

Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time. Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data. Each station transmits its data in is assigned time slot. The main problem with TDMA lies in achieving synchronization between the different stations. Each station needs to know the beginning of its slot and the location of its slot. This may be difficult because of propagation delays introduced in the system if the stations are spread over a large area. To compensate for the delays, we can insert guard times. Synchronization is normally accomplished by having some synchronization bits (normally referred to as preamble bits) at the beginning of each slot. We also need to emphasize that although TDMA and TDM conceptually seem the same, there are differences between them. TDM, is a physical layer technique that combines the data from slower channels and transmits them by using a faster channel. The process uses a physical multiplexer that interleaves data units from each channel. TDMA, on the other hand, is an access method in the data link layer. The data link layer in each station tells its physical layer to use the allocated time slot. There is no physical multiplexer at the physical layer.

Token Passing

Token Passing

In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical ring. In other words, for each station, there is a predecessor and a successor. The predecessor is the station which is logically before the station in the ring; the successor is the station which is after the station in the ring. The current station is the one that is accessing the channel now. The fight to this access has been passed from the predecessor to the current station. The right will be passed to the successor when the current station has no more data to send. But how is the right to access the channel passed from one station to another? In this method, a special packet called a token circulates through the ring. The possession of the token gives the station the right to access the channel and send its data. When a station has some data to send, it waits until it receives the token from its predecessor. It then holds the token and sends its data. When the station has no more data to send, it releases the token, passing it to the next logical station in the ring. The station cannot send data until it receives the token again in the next round. In this process, when a station receives the token and has no data to send, it just passes the data to the
next station. Token management is needed for this access method. Stations must be limited in the time they can have possession of the token. The token must be monitored to ensure it has not been lost or destroyed. For example, if a station that is holding the token fails, the token will disappear from the network. Another function of token management is to assign priorities to the stations and to the types of data being transmitted. And finally, token management is needed to make low-priority stations release the token to highpriority stations.

Logical Ring

In a token-passing network, stations do not have to be physically connected in a ring; the ring can be a logical one. In the physical ring topology, when a station sends the token to its successor, the token cannot be seen by other stations; the successor is the next one in line. This means that the token does not have to have the address of the next successor. The problem with this topology is that if one of the links--the medium between two adjacent stations-- fails, the whole system fails. The dual ring topology uses a second (auxiliary) ring which operates in the reverse
direction compared with the main ring. The second ring is for emergencies only (such as a spare tire for a car). If one of the links in the main ring fails, the system automatically combines the two rings to form a temporary ring. After the failed link is restored, the auxiliary ring becomes idle again. Note that for this topology to work, each station needs to have two transmitter ports and two receiver ports. The high-speed Token Ring networks called FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) and CDDI (Copper Distributed Data Interface) use this topology. In the bus ring topology, also called a token bus, the stations are connected to a single cable called a bus. They, however, make a logical ring, because each station knows the address of its successor (and also predecessor for token management purposes). When a station has finished sending its data, it releases the token and inserts the address of its successor in the token. Only the station with the address matching the destination address of the token gets the token to access the shared media. The Token Bus LAN, standardized by IEEE, uses this topology. In a star ring topology, the physical topology is a star. There is a hub, however, that acts as the connector. The wiring inside the hub makes the ring; the stations are connected to this ring through the two wire connections. This topology makes the network less prone to failure because if a link goes down, it will be bypassed by the hub and the rest of the stations can operate. Also adding and removing stations from the ring is easier. This topology is still used in the Token Ring LAN designed

CSMA/CA

CSMA/CA and Wireless Networks

CSMA/CA was mostly intended for use in wireless networks. The procedure described above, however, is not sophisticated enough to handle some particular issues related to wireless networks, such as hidden terminals or exposed terminals. We will see how these issues are solved by augmenting the above protocol with hand-shaking features.

CONTROLLED ACCESS

In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station has the right to send. A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations. We discuss three popular controlled-access methods.

Reservation

In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending data. Time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frames sent in that interval.

Polling

Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated as a primary station and the other devices are secondary stations. All data exchanges must be made through the primary device even when the ultimate destination is a secondary device. The primary device controls the link; the secondary devices follow its instructions. It is up to the primary device to determine which device is allowed to use the channel at a given time. The primary device, therefore, is always the initiator of a session.

If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the secondaries if they have anything to send; this is called poll function. If the primary wants to send data, it tells the secondary to get ready to receive; this is called select function.

Select

The select function is used whenever the primary device has something to send. Remember that the primary controls the link. If the primary is neither sending nor receiving data, it knows the link is available. If it has something to send, the primary device sends it. What it does not know,
however, is whether the target device is prepared to receive. So the primary must alert the secondary to the upcoming transmission and wait for an acknowledgment of the secondary's ready status. Before sending data, the primary creates and transmits a select (SEL) frame, one field of which includes the address of the intended secondary.

Poll

The poll function is used by the primary device to solicit transmissions from the secondary devices. When the primary is ready to receive data, it must ask (poll) each device in turn if it has anything to send. When the first secondary is approached, it responds either with a NAK frame if it has nothing to send or with data (in the form of a data frame) if it does. If the response is negative (a NAK frame), then the primary polls the next secondary in the same manner until it finds one with data to send. When the response is positive (a data frame), the primary reads the frame and returns an acknowledgment (ACK frame), verifying its receipt.

Collision Avoidance

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

The basic idea behind CSMA/CD is that a station needs to be able to receive while transmitting to detect a collision. When there is no collision, the station receives one signal: its own signal. When there is a collision, the station receives two signals: its own signal and the signal transmitted by a second station. To distinguish between these two cases, the received signals in these two cases must be significantly different. In other words, the signal from the second station needs to add a significant amount of energy to the one created by the first station. In a wired network, the received signal has almost the same energy as the sent signal because either the length of the cable is short or there are repeaters that amplify the energy between the sender and the receiver. This means that in a collision, the detected energy almost doubles. However, in a wireless network, much of the sent energy is lost in transmission. The received signal has very little energy. Therefore, a collision may add only 5 to 10 percent additional energy. This is not useful for effective collision detection. We need to avoid collisions on wireless networks because they cannot be detected. Carder sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) was invented for this network. Collisions are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA's three strategies: the interframe space, the contention window, and acknowledgments.

Interframe Space (IFS)

First, collisions are avoided by deferring transmission even if the channel is found idle. When an idle channel is found, the station does not send immediately. It waits for a period of time called the interframe space or IFS. Even though the channel may appear idle when it is sensed, a distant station may have already started transmitting. The distant station's signal has not yet reached this station. The IFS time allows the front of the transmitted signal by the distant station to reach this station. If after the IFS time the channel is still idle, the station can send, but it still needs to wait a time equal to the contention time (described next). The IFS variable can also be used to prioritize stations or frame types. For example, a station that is assigned a shorter IFS has a higher priority.

Contention Window

The contention window is an amount of time divided into slots. A station that is ready to send chooses a random number of slots as its wait time. The number of slots in the window changes according to the binary exponential back-off strategy. This means that it is set to one slot the first time and then doubles each time the station cannot detect an idle channel after the IFS time. This is very similar to the p-persistent method except that a random outcome defines the number of slots taken by the waiting station. One interesting point about the contention window is that the station needs to sense the channel after each time slot. However, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the process; it just stops the timer and restarts it when the channel is sensed as idle. This gives priority to the station with the longest waiting time.

Acknowledgment

With all these precautions, there still may be a collision resulting in destroyed data. In addition, the data may be corrupted during the transmission. The positive acknowledgment and the time-out timer can help guarantee that the receiver has received the frame.

Procedure

Note that the channel needs to be sensed before and after the IFS. The channel also needs to be sensed during the contention time. For each time slot of the contention window, the channel is sensed. If it is found idle, the timer continues; if the channel is found busy, the timer is stopped and continues after the timer becomes idle again.